Problem Statement and Literature Review
The use of foreign military bases located within the territory of third States has become one of the challenging issues in contemporary international law, particularly in the context of armed conflicts. These facilities may serve important functions in planning, supporting, coordinating, or conducting military operations and may therefore raise fundamental questions regarding the prohibition of the use of force, international State responsibility, and individual criminal responsibility. Although the establishment of a foreign military base or the presence of foreign military forces in the territory of another State does not, by itself, constitute an internationally wrongful act, the legal consequences of such facilities become significant when they are used in connection with military operations alleged to violate international obligations.
Existing studies have examined various aspects of State responsibility, attribution of conduct, the prohibition of the use of force, and international criminal responsibility. Research concerning the Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts has mainly focused on the conditions of attribution and the responsibility arising from aid or assistance provided in the commission of an internationally wrongful act. Likewise, studies in international criminal law have addressed individual responsibility for international crimes, particularly war crimes and the crime of aggression. However, insufficient attention has been paid to an integrated analysis of foreign military bases as a connecting factor between State conduct, assistance or facilitation of internationally wrongful acts, and the possible criminal responsibility of political and military officials.
The necessity of the present study arises from the increasing complexity of contemporary military operations, in which the use of foreign territories, airspace, military facilities, and logistical capabilities has become a common feature of armed confrontations. In such circumstances, determining the responsibility of the State operating military bases, the host State providing facilities, and individuals involved in military decision-making requires a comprehensive legal framework based on the principles of attribution, international State responsibility, international humanitarian law, and international criminal law.
Research Objective
This research aims to analyze the legal role of foreign military bases in armed conflicts and to examine their consequences for international State responsibility and individual criminal responsibility. The main objective is to identify the legal conditions under which the use of military bases, airspace, logistical facilities, and other military capabilities located in third States may result in responsibility for the State conducting military operations, the host State providing such facilities, or individuals involved in related actions.
The research seeks to demonstrate that the mere existence of foreign military bases or the existence of defense agreements between States cannot automatically establish international responsibility. Rather, responsibility requires the determination of specific legal elements, including attribution of conduct, knowledge of the circumstances surrounding the operation, effective assistance, and a sufficient connection between the facilities provided and the alleged internationally wrongful act.
Furthermore, this study aims to distinguish among three separate levels of accountability: the international responsibility of the State conducting military operations, the possible responsibility of the host State based on assistance or facilitation, and the individual criminal responsibility of persons who participate in planning, ordering, directing, or assisting international crimes.
Methodology
This research employs a descriptive-analytical method based on library and documentary sources. The study examines relevant international legal instruments, including the Charter of the United Nations, particularly Article 2(4) concerning the prohibition of the use of force and Article 51 concerning self-defence, the Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts adopted by the International Law Commission, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, international humanitarian law instruments, international judicial practice, and relevant academic sources.
Through a legal analytical approach, this research examines concepts such as attribution of conduct, effective control, aid or assistance, international State responsibility, command responsibility, and individual criminal responsibility. The Iran–United States military confrontation is selected as a case study to evaluate the possible legal consequences of using foreign military bases and related facilities in military operations.
Findings
The findings of this research demonstrate that foreign military bases cannot be considered, solely because of their existence, as evidence of international responsibility. The legal assessment depends on the actual function of these facilities, the manner in which they are used, the level of knowledge of the relevant States, and the material relationship between these facilities and specific military operations.
Regarding the responsibility of the State operating foreign military bases, the research indicates that where such facilities are used for planning, supporting, coordinating, or conducting military operations alleged to violate international obligations, and where the relevant conduct is attributable to the State under international law, the possibility of international responsibility may arise. In this regard, military bases functioning as operational, intelligence, logistical, or command centers may constitute significant elements in assessing State responsibility.
With respect to host States, the findings indicate that merely permitting the establishment of foreign military facilities or maintaining defense relations with another State is insufficient to establish international responsibility. However, where a host State knowingly provides effective assistance, logistical support, access to facilities, or other forms of contribution directly connected with an internationally wrongful act, its responsibility may be examined under the rules governing aid or assistance in the commission of an internationally wrongful act.
The study also demonstrates that international State responsibility and individual criminal responsibility constitute distinct but related legal frameworks. The establishment of State responsibility does not automatically result in the criminal responsibility of individuals. Individual criminal responsibility requires independent proof of the material and mental elements of international crimes, including participation, ordering, contribution, facilitation, or command responsibility.
Regarding international crimes, particularly the crime of aggression and war crimes, the findings show that only individuals holding leadership positions and possessing effective authority over political or military actions may potentially incur international criminal responsibility, provided that all required legal elements are established.
Conclusion
The analysis conducted in this research confirms that foreign military bases represent an important factor in contemporary armed conflicts; however, their mere existence cannot create international responsibility. Determining responsibility requires a case-by-case assessment based on attribution of conduct, the nature and extent of assistance provided, knowledge of the relevant circumstances, and the connection between the facilities used and the alleged violation of international law.
The study concludes that the legal assessment of foreign military bases in armed conflicts requires simultaneous consideration of international State responsibility and individual criminal responsibility. While the State conducting military operations may bear responsibility for acts attributable to it, the responsibility of host States depends on their level of involvement, knowledge, and contribution to the relevant operations.
At the individual level, criminal responsibility can only arise where the elements of international crimes and the personal role of political or military officials are established. Therefore, the legal regulation of foreign military bases should be interpreted through an integrated framework combining the prohibition of the use of force, the rules of State responsibility, international humanitarian law, and international criminal law.